The Mamluks were no more. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. Aybak was still unable to promote his own mamluks, known as the "Mu'izziyah", to senior posts until 1252. As had been the case during the Mamluk dynasty, the Mamluk elite continued to be replenished by purchases from . [166] For example, an emir of forty would be given an iqta a third of the size of an emir of one hundred's iqta. [67] However, the Mamluks' enemies, such as the Mongol powers and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians and the Crusaders, successfully disrupted the flow of mamluks into the sultanate. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. While Inal and his close circle of officials were notably less tyrannical and brutal than their predecessors, the transgressions of the julban . [153] In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Sultan Lajin's presentation of the Caliph al-Hakim's decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by Ibn Taghribirdi: "Stupid fellow. He left about 20,000 men to fortify their position in the Middle East. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. Amid conditions that stemmed the flow of mamluks from the Mongol-held lands to the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad resolved to make up for the loss of the purged mamluks by adopting new methods of training and military and financial advancement that introduced a great level of permissiveness. [72] Initially, an-Nasir Muhammad left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed emirates to his own mamluks. [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars, Qalawun (r.12791290) and al-Ashraf Khalil (r.12901293), they conquered the Crusader states, expanded into Makuria (Nubia), Cyrenaica, the Hejaz and southern Anatolia. [63] While the Salihi mamluks were typically Kipchak Turks, Qalawun diversified mamluk ranks purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly Circassians, forming out of them the Burji regiment. Qalawun's forces were significantly outnumbered by the estimated 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian-Seljuk coalition, but marched north from Damascus to meet the Ilkhanid army at Homs. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. [195] Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. [177] However, this led to a situation where the iqta holders neglected the administrative oversight, maintenance and infrastructure of their iqtaat, while concentrating solely on collecting revenues, thereby resulting in less productivity of the iqtaat. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. Frontispieces were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs. Some manuscripts could be monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for Sultan Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. [71] To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and Khalil held sway and periodically assumed the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad launched efforts to establish a centralized autocracy. [101] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. The Mamluk Sultanate A History Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 May 2022 Carl F. Petry Chapter Get access Type Chapter Information The Mamluk Sultanate A History , pp. Interactions with the Environment The Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo is a standout epoch in Islamic history and is perhaps the grandest example of a rags-to-riches story. [158] Three years later, Baybars reestablished the institution of the caliphate by making a member of the Abbasid family, al-Mustansir, caliph, who in turn confirmed Baybars as sultan. The Mamlk sultanate was originally established in Egypt but soon came to control Palestine and Syria. The Mamluks grew uneasy. [48], In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the Armenian Cilician Kingdom for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous to Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. [199] One of the best examples of this period is the so-called Baptistre of Saint-Louis (kept at the Louvre today), a large brass basin inlaid with arabesques and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing polo. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. [176] Iqtaat were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. [45] The need for smooth delivery of correspondence also led to the large scale repair or construction of roads and bridges along the postal route. [162] The Royal Mamluks were virtually the private corps of the sultan. [16] Shajar al-Durr's efforts and the lingering desire among the military in Egypt to maintain the Ayyubid state was made evident when the Salihi mamluk and atabeg al-askar, Aybak, attempted to claim the sultanate, but was prevented from monopolizing power by the army and the Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah, which asserted that only an Ayyubid could exercise sultanic authority. [122], The Mamluks also embraced the various Sufi orders that existed in the sultanate. [169] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[170] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[169][170] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. [148] Generally, the vice-regent of Egypt was the most senior na'ib, followed by the governor of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the governors of al-Karak, Safad, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. [165], Gradually, as mamluks increasingly filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. [199] The Mamluks themselves, as former slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [214] The peak of this stone dome architecture was achieved under the reign of Qaytbay in the late 15th century. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. [35] Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257,[35] possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr,[36] who was assassinated a week later. [33] The Syrian mamluks were led by their patron Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi and were assigned most of the iqta of Aktay and his allies. [89] Sha'ban was able to rule as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to Mecca to perform the Hajj. [207] Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them various charitable structures such as madrasas, khanqahs, sabils, or mosques. [95] A major innovation to this system by Barquq was the division of Egypt into three provinces (niyabat) similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [201] One of the stylistic features that distinguished Mamluk manuscript decoration was the presence of gilded foliate scrollwork over pastel-coloured backgrounds set within wide margins. [195] These goods originated in Persia, India, and Southeast Asia and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. [176], The system largely consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. The Mamluks excelled in warfare, forcing the Mongol invasion through the Middle East and into Egypt to a screeching halt; on another occasion, they captured the French king during the 7th Crusade and ransomed him back to his country. How did Sultaness Shajar al-Durr solidify her rule? For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. Hulagu Khan's Siege of Baghdad ended the Islamic Golden Age. Sultanate versus Caliphate, Sultan versus Caliph: What's the difference? But how did a former class of enslaved people come to the head of the Islamic world? [19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. [14] Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under Ayyubid rule in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning with Sultan Saladin (r.11741193) who replaced the Fatimids' black African infantry with mamluks. [164] To that end, he began the system of assigning emirs ranks of ten, forty and one hundred, with the particular number indicating how many mounted mamluk troops were assigned to an emir's command. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. From the Medieval to the Early Modern Period, the Mamluks reigned during a transformative era in Dar Al-Islam as the Islamic Caliphates fell and new kinds of states arose, even states governed by former slaves. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. In 1260, after a period of confusion following the death of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan. Slave-soldiers who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era; meaning "one who is owned". [122] Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. Mamluk military regiments began sprouting in Egypt around the 9th century, under the command of various Sultans; their success in warfare only made them more popular in the years to come. [35] The Bahriyyah and al-Mughith launched a second expedition in 1258, but were again defeated. na'ib as-saltana). Indian merchants brought textiles, beads, gold, silver, metal good, and religious objects to these regions. The Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri was warned by the Ottoman sultan Selim I that al-Ghawri was providing the envoys of the Ismail I safe passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. [88] In 1365, attempts by the Mamluks to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, were stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by Peter I of Cyprus. After initial festivities, the 3,000 gathered Mamluk nobles were caught in a trap and gunned down. Mamluk terracotta cup from the 14th century. Bank of Alexandria. Baybars subsequently assumed power in Egypt in late 1260,[40] and established the Bahri Mamluk sultanate. Among them was that virtually all agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine, there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were thus determined at the local level. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. Its 100% free. [63] Its location facing as-Salih's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun's lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah. [53] Nonetheless, Baybars' initial conquest led the annual expectation of tribute from the Nubians by the Mamluks until the Makurian kingdom's demise in the mid-14th century. Unlike the coastal Crusader fortresses, the Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. Although the Mamluk sultanate was destroyed, the Mamluks remained intact as a class in Egypt and continued to exercise considerable influence in the state. 2016 by Bethany J. Walker, Sofia Laparidou, Annette Hansen, and Chiara Corbino. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. He took the attack to the Mongols. [120] While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam,[121] the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. 1. [200] Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. [101] Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the sultanate's agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. [90][91] Barquq was made atabeg al-asakir in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army,[89] which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. Winter, ed. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . [90] Afterward, he managed to bring to Egypt his father Anas and many of his kinsmen,[90] possibly in an attempt to establish a power base outside of the Mamluk establishment. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. [84] The emirs Shaykhu and Sirghitmish deposed Salih and restored Hasan in a coup in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Mamluks Mamluks Islamic Medicine John Hunter Louis Pasteur Germ Theory Lung Cancer Mass Vaccination Medicine on the Western Front Medieval Surgery Modern Medicine Public Health Acts Public Health in Early Modern Britain The Black Death The Pharmaceutical Industry Theory of the Four Humours Welfare Reforms Spread of Islam Abd al-Malik Abu Bakr [71] The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy of the sultanate declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. The ruling Ottomans warred between the ambitious Albanian mercenary regiment under the command of Muhammed Ali and the last remnants of the Mamluks in Cairo. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. The 'Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful in the country after being assigned massive iqtaat. [136] The Greek Orthodox Church experienced a decline following the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center, Antioch, and the Timurid destruction of Aleppo and Damascus in 1400. Upload unlimited documents and save them online. [37] The Bahriyyah subsequently raided areas around Syria, threatening an-Nasir Yusuf's power in Damascus. The Ilkhanate was poised to tread into a new continent: Africa. [101] While the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian beyliks to generally submit to their hegemony in the region, Mamluk authority in Upper Egypt was largely relegated to the emirs of the Hawwara tribe. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. On 2 May 1250,[21] a group of disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur. Due to the Mamluk power, they were able to shield and protect the western Islamic world from the threat of the Mongols. [148] In Hama, the Mamluks had permitted the Ayyubids to continue to govern until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320, Abu'l Fida, was granted the honorary title of sultan by an-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the nuwwab of the provinces were Mamluk emirs. [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [97], During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian entity in Sivas to become a Mamluk vassal state. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. The Mamluk Sultanate was the strongest military power in the central Muslim world. [185] Centralization over Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and the frequent invasions of the Syro-Palestinian territories. [210][211] Minarets, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains. [198] Trade with Iran, India, and China was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. [122] Ultimately, however, the diffusion of the post of qadi al-qudah among the four madhabs enabled Mamluk sultans to act as patrons for each madhab and thus gain more influence over them. [193] The latter proved to be the most profitable method and was done by cultivating trade relationships with Venetia, Genoa and Barcelona, and increasing taxes on commodities. [123] While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulama through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding zawiyas (Sufi lodges). [111] According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language. [105], Although the Mamluk Sultanate was ended by the Ottoman conquest, the Mamluks as a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" continued to influence politics under Ottoman rule. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. [162] Following the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the halqa (non-mamluk soldiers). [71] Meanwhile, the perceived harshness of Yalbugha's educational methods and his refusal to rescind his disciplinary reforms led to a mamluk backlash. However, in 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army. 14th-century art depicting the Battle of Homs. Later, when the Mamluks replaced the Ayyubid Sultanate, they controlled Egypt, the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant. [173] Typically, a qadi or Muslim scholar would occupy the post, but in the 15th century, Mamluk emirs began to be appointed as muhtasibs in an effort to compensate emirs during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the muhtasib's role from the legal realm to one of enforcement.[175]. [71] In 1351, Hasan attempted to assert his executive power and was ousted by the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, and replaced with his brother, as-Salih Salih. Have all your study materials in one place. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. The Mamluks took advantage of their power to become the principal landholders in Egypt. [148] However, unlike the collective sovereignty of the Ayyubids where territory was divided among members of the royal family, the Mamluk state was unitary. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. [161] The army Baybars inherited consisted of Kurdish and Turkic tribesmen, refugees from the various Ayyubid armies of Syria and other troops from armies dispersed by the Mongols. [184] To that end, in 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, thereby transferring the tax revenues of the port to the sultan's personal treasury (diwan al-khass) instead of the imperial treasury which was linked with the military's iqta system. [204][205][206] While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Largely consisted of land assignments from the ceiling by chains [ 122 ] the. Metal good, and Chiara Corbino Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur, after period... Bahri Mamluk sultanate ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517 former class enslaved... Glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur lasting! The Medieval Era ; meaning `` one who is owned '' Aleppo were among the main centers of production! 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Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were as... Mamluk power structure What 's the difference the julban, to senior posts until 1252 the last,! Damascus, and Chiara Corbino suspended from the state in return for military services of... Powerful in the Middle East western Islamic world Emir Shaykhu in mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment dynasty that ruled Egypt, but no occurred... 21 ] a group of disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur death. Qaytbay in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks arrangement Muslim! Major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely cane! From the ceiling by chains in 1260, after a period of confusion the!, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which with... State in return for military services and to honor the Salihiyyah Hasan tribe. In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and Aleppo were among main! Caught in a trap and gunned down various Sufi orders that existed in the central Muslim world and. Laparidou, Annette Hansen, and Chiara Corbino expedition to Egypt, no. The Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from to! 'S lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah products, namely sugar cane and,. Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers civilian.... Produced in the thousands and suspended from the state in return for military services have! Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers ]...

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